Less capital requirement

There is obviously little capital required to set up of small businesses as compared to large corporate.  This implies that more prospective business investors can manage to establish small businesses.  It must be agreed that the financial aspect is one of the setbacks to setting up of businesses. Large business entities require enormous amount of starting capital and many people who would like to put up businesses are tumbled around constrains of financial abilities.  Although with the visions, aspirations and plans to have big businesses, they end up starting small entities and build up their visions from that platform.  The small businesses profile provides a building block for the larger entities.  With good managerial initiative the small business owners are able to transform the small entities into large corporate.  It’s just a matter of time and focus and soon an investor begins enjoying large economies of scale.

Easy management portfolio

Due to the fact that the structural, technological, and human aspects of small business are inexpensive, there is easy management of these resources.  The manpower is controllable, the financial resource is manageable, the technological innovations are sizable and the strategic approaches are simplified.  Basically there is less input in the management aspect of small businesses.  It thus requires a basic understanding of business operations to run a small business which would be difficult in the case of large corporate.

Less cost implications on risks and uncertainties

The small businesses are preferred by many because of the conceptual framework in cost analysis in case of eventualities.  Indeed, there are fewer costs that are attached to risks and uncertainties in small businesses.  Any way, businesses are but just about taking risks, and when the events of uncertainties occur, there is a cost implication.  The amount in which a small business suffers is much less than in the case of large businesses.  For instance, when a natural disaster such as an earthquake strikes in an area, the big businesses suffer more losses than the small businesses.  Nevertheless, investors should not shy off from running big business where appropriate, as the opportunities are great in terms of monetary achievements.

Consume for the figure, Home Networking, wireless, communication and business application offer the industrywide standard processor framework and nuclear inside and lead manufacturer American general Cisco skill Company (MIPS Technologies, Inc.,) Announce today, has already appointed Ravikrishna Cherukuri to be responsible for all software and hardware project development of company as the executive vice president of the project. Mr. Cherukuri has abundant microprocessor and software scheme experience, superfine (AMD), company services such as Nexgen Microsystem, Siara Systems and Sonoa Systems,etc..

Scientific and technological President & CEO Sandeep Vij MIPS shows: ” We welcome Ravi to join the company very much, are devoted to offering integral software and hardware scheme with us together, he can lead our engineering department to develop continuously. Ravi deal with framework, network, the intersection of cloud and service, infrastructure and the intersection of system and the intersection of person who dispose and field, have abundant professional knowledge a little, will bring the maximal benefit while designing to the future generation and networking the products for MIPS science and technology and our customer. ”

Mr. Cherukuri shows: ” I am very familiar with MIPSTM function characteristic with accurate, simple and easy and strong framework for a long time. I expect to make with hardware and soft project group of MIPS science and technology very much. The low-powered products development ability with high capacity and efficiency that they possessed have been already definite the industry. Exactly join the excellent opportunity of company now, because we are besides having innovation of the microprocessor continuously, it is still Linux, Android&trade actively; And develop and optimize the scheme in the other important software platforms. ”

Before joining MIPS science and technology, Mr. Cherukuri is one of the originators of Sonoa Systems and concurrently project executive vice president. Sonoa offers for cloud service and API analyzing, manages and manages the infrastructure supplier of the scheme. Before Sonoa, Mr. Cherukuri is one of the creators of Siara Systems, are responsible for managing ASIC and hardware development, this is one by company of KPCB investment, and was merge by Redback Networks in 2000. Before this, the intersection of Cherukuri and Mr. served in Nexgen Microsystem/AMD for 8 years, served as the main designer of AMD K6 microprocessor, and lead K7 chip set (Irongate) Development. Before this, Mr. Cherukuri is the engineer of HCL Infosystems, participates in flagship one grade of frameworks and development of Magnum multi-processor platform of company. Mr. Cherukuri has project bachelor’s degree of IIT Roorkee, and by NYU Stern, London School of Economics and Paris higher business school (HEC, Paris) TRIUM Global EMBA degree issued together. He has 19 American patent in all in computer frameworks and networks.

The computer is no longer a novelty today. It is something that is highly functional and useful not only to scientists, managers, businessmen, professionals, and government officials, but also to students like you.

The world is changing because of the computer. The computer can do almost any routine or systematic procedure or operation involving information, so that people can have more time to do what they do best – think.

The term computer has many definitions. The easiest to understand and remember is: A computer is an electronic device designed to manipulate data so that useful information can be generated. Data may be defined as any collection of facts. By this definition, data may refer to both numerical and nonnumerical information. Data processing is the manipulation of data into a more useful form. It involves the collection, processing, and distribution of facts and figures to achieve a desired result. It may also involve the classification of data and the transmission of data from one place to another. All the operations involved in data processing may have been performed by some kind of a machine or a computer, although some of them could have been carried out manually. Data processing system refers to the equipment or devices as well as procedures by which the result is achieved. In short, a computer is part of a data processing system.

The Characteristics of a Computer

A computer is a device with remarkable efficiency and speed. In fact, it is described as an intelligent machine. But you must not forget that it is just a tool for man to use. It may be a powerful tool, but it is still a tool nonetheless.

The following are the characteristics of a computer:

1. A computer is a machine. It is an inanimate object and, as such, will need human intervention to operate. Furthermore, it will only do things for which it is designed for.
2. A computer is electronic. It is made up of electronic circuits and runs on electrical energy.
3. A computer is automatic. Once started, it continues to run without outside intervention.
4. A computer can manipulate data. It can perform arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication following specific rules or instructions. It cans also compare data.
5. A computer has memory. It has the capacity to remember what it has done. It can store data and instruction in its memory and retrieve these whenever they are needed during operation.
6. A computer has logical functions. It can be given a set of instructions which tells what it must do and how it must do them and can produce results upon completion of these instructions. Very often, the instructions contain statements in which the computer is asked to make predetermined decisions.

At Transmitting, the organization deals in varied types of equipment sales such as those which support Simultaneous Interpretation and those which work as the translation equipment. The aim is to ease the conferencing and language needs with the best of what the technology has to offer. State-of-the-art gear along with a team of trained professionals operates such delicate technology to bring the best of the results possible to the customer. Also these highly qualified technicians work as the post of well qualified and well coached interpreters who have substantial experience in the field of written translation services for all kinds of languages and specialized areas as well.

The concept of simultaneous interpretation equipment and others which supports translation equipment work in providing assistance to the listening equipment. This technology is in high demand in places such as corporations, NGOs, convention centers, government, meeting facilities and also the courthouses. The equipment sales idea works for those who are in the field of translation and interpretation. The high technology gadgets are also in demands for their use in companies, school and universities as well.

The sales experts of Transmitting works simultaneously to guise the users and make them aware of the changing usage of the gadgets as well as the additional user friendly features that come with Simultaneous Interpretation Translation Equipment . For equipment sales package that includes correct simultaneous interpretation and assistive listening equipment life is surely made easier.

Some of the gadgets that come in handy in such procedures are FM wireless receivers and transmitters, interpreter consoles, infra-red wireless receivers and transmitters, tour guide equipment, interpreter booths, assistive listening systems and latest technology supporting conference systems. All these gadgets and many more are the most promising that the Transmitting can offer to its customers along with the exclusive services such as complete interpretation service package, experienced interpreters with knowledge in all languages, equipment sales and rental for simultaneous interpretation, written translations and many more as per the customers requirement.

Do you want to make traveling your job?

Having a job is an essential part of life. It gives you purpose and most importantly, a means of income. Just imagine what it would be like if you had lots of money to spare or a steady source of income without lifting a finger, would you continue to work and stress yourself out with the mundane day to day activities? Most probably not.

Traveling on vacation is one of the ultimate life aspirations of many people around the world. Unfortunately, it can be quite expensive and people feel like they have to work hard to save money to achieve the ability to travel. However, that is not the only way to travel and explore the world. There is a better way and it is composed of two words… travel jobs.

Travel jobs will satisfy your thirst for exploration but can still help you earn steady cash and you don’t have to wait until you retire in your old age tp frolic in the sands of the Caribbean or experience the magnificent culture of Asia. You can do it now without burning holes to your pockets.

Sounds incredible but travel jobs have been around for a very long time, ever since the dawn of tourism. The travel and tourism industry has been booming and has even been able to weather the storm of global economic crisis. Tourism is a giant industry because many nations rely on their income from tourism and travel. Recession or not, the tourism industry has survived and continues to grow.

The advancements in communications and transportation technology have greatly contributed to the growth of the travel and tourism industry. Traveling had never been easier nor faster. And the world has become figuratively smaller because we are now able to communicate and connect with one another much more easily.

Travelers and vacationers are steadily increasing. As a result, the demand for travel and tourism workers is also mounting. Jobs such as flight attendants, travel agents, and cabin crews are constantly offered these days. Hospitality workers like the staff in hotels; for example concierges, bellhops, chambermaids, and even managerial positions are becoming more common.

Since employees can easily be contacted these days, companies and businesses are getting more confident in deploying company representatives in other locations to market and sell their service and products. Travel sales jobs are also great career options.

Consultant jobs are getting better recognition and have allowed many people to become more nomadic because consultants are needed all around the world, going to places where their skills are needed. The Internet has made the market larger for businesses. The market of today is global and buyers can be from different geographical regions.

Travel writing, photography, and freelance works like blogging, SEO, and other technological jobs that can be done while traveling. The Internet has helped in finding new qualified customers and selling a physical or informational product. You can now work anywhere with connectivity and electricity.

Travel jobs are abundant and if you want one, you will want to examine yourself closely and determine your skills and abilities. You should know what you are capable of that can become an asset in your job applications. Research diligently and stay informed.

The retailer offers customers private label merchandise developed internally in each privately owned store. Their wide variety of merchandise provides 18-25 year old females with practically everything, but with an average store space of about 3000 square feet CEO Rick Weinstein said, “We have to be selective. We can’t be everything to everybody, and we don’t try to be. We try to be the best at what we do offer.”

Weinstein has been with Vanity for two and a half years but has provided Canadian and American retailers invaluable support for more than three decades. COO Scott Roller, on the other hand, is relatively new to the industry. An IT expert who has been with the company for more than three years, Roller has experience in a variety of industries including hospitality, travel, defense contracting and health care. “My focus is on delivering systems and solutions that add value to the business,” he said. He was originally Vanity’s IT Director before the opportunity arose to evaluate the business performance from another perspective.

A MARRIAGE, OF SORTS

Employees in each store are broken down into a series of departments – there are five companywide districts with their own manager, individual store managers, assistant managers, two team leads and the sales consultants. With a recent system implementation assisted by SalesfloorLIVE, LLC, everyone from the individual store employee to the chairman of the board can now track their key performance indicators (traffic, sales, conversion rate, service intensity, etc) by 15 minute increments in a system that “married easy to use technology with operational effectiveness,” said Roller. While this monitoring system is hardly revolutionary for the retail industry, it’s a “culture shift as it identifies where there are gaps and holes in the business and it allows us to take action on the information within the current day.”

More than just a management tool, added Weinstein, he calls the technological update – which can be operated remotely through an extranet site – a “transparent process.” The system enables Vanity’s three unique components: the high quality products offered at competitive prices with great service, and the ability to track performance on an individual store basis. “The type of growth we have experienced due to this system has been organic growth,” said Roller. “It’s allowing us to monitor the performance of every individual to make sure that we’re getting high levels of performance out of everyone.”

The system also introduced a new five step sales training program for store managers to implement directly on the sales floor. It also introduced an incentive program for employees that meet or exceed metric goals, and doubles as a scheduling tool that allows employees to schedule labor based on individual performance and hourly traffic opportunities.

CUSTOMER TRENDS

About two years ago, Vanity welcomed an e-commerce website. Vanity has since marketed to various social media sites because “you need to be where your customer is,” said Roller. “We have a presence in all of those locations, and we’ve got a pretty good story to tell about our product and our service.”

According to Weinstein, everyday of the week the company tracks trends; through the new technology the Company is able to monitor every item purchased, or overlooked, down to the color and size. “We do a lot of homework before any season begins on what projected trends are for the season. Once we’re in that season, we track it pretty closely to see how we’re doing,” said Weinstein. “Over the years, we’ve been progressively improving the quality of our product, the value we’re offering, and being more on trend than in the past, and that’s an ongoing process. You never get there, and you’re always trying to improve.”

Retailers are typically in the business of tracking trends, and Vanity found a means to integrate an eco-friendly component into that system. While the company offered a variety of environmentally friendly products last year to little avail, on the manufacturing side the company’s biggest seller – their well fit jeans – have been keen to incorporate these trends in the manufacturing stage. “Everyone is focusing on being more environmentally friendly, particularly in the jean industry, where the dyes that most of the jean suppliers use can pollute the water,” said Weinstein. “There are new system regulations that have been put in place [for eco-friendly manufacturing] which will necessitate capital investment. It’s the right thing to do, and we’re shying away from suppliers that aren’t using these procedures.”

COMMUNITY

Aside from their extensive size range and fitted jean, Vanity has taken upon itself over the years to get involved in the community. With stores as far west as Washington, east as Johnson City, TN and south as Beaumont, TX, each are localized through philanthropic events. The last two years the company incorporated a national event into their annual fundraisers. “It’s part of our company philosophy to give back to the community we live in,” said Weinstein. “We’re not doing it for the PR we get, but more for giving back.” The storewide event is just one that every individual store participates over the course of the year; district managers and store managers are encouraged to get involved in their own communities as well, “in whatever capacities they can,” said Roller.

THE FUTURE

After closing about 15 stores this year, the team plans to focus on existing markets and expand in areas where Vanity is already a household name, “in a controlled and selective way,” added Weinstein. The introduction of new states to the brand will most likely be adjacent to areas Vanity is already established, he continued. “Everything that we’re doing at Vanity with the systems and strategy that we have in place, it’s all about continuous improvement…and ultimately we’ll know whether we’re succeeding or not because the customer will reward us with their dollars. It’s only looking up from here,” said Roller.

The Indo-German Science and Technology Centre (IGSTC) will be established in about two month’s time in New Delhi, it has been stated by T. Ramasami, Secretary, Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the German Parliamentary Secretary after the 8th Indo-German Committee on Science and Technology. It has been announced by the German President Horst Koehler that 2011-12 will be a German-Indian year that will showcase German politics, culture, art and science and technology.India’s high status in the field of science and technology research came in for mention at the India Eco Summit where the panelists discussed whether the country had the potential to become a science and technology innovation hub in the near future. The Australian and Indian governments have jointly launched a US$ 100 million science and technology collaboration project that touches on the importance of green science and technology in tackling challenges in water, energy, health and environment.The Indian telecom sector has added 170 million phone connections in 2009, taking the total subscriber base to 550 million. At present, the Indian telecom market is the fastest growing in the world with the lowest tariffs and market leaders in the Indian telecom sector. The Indian Telecom Analysis (2008-2012) report by RNCOS Industry Research Solutions shows that mobile telecom segment has surpassed all other segments in the Indian telecom sector. Meanwhile the view has been expressed that a considerable degree of consolidation is due to take place in the telecom sector with the end of the tariff war among players in the Indian telecom sector. In the mean time, a big player in the Indian telecom sector, Bharti Airtel, continues to work to make its presence in the African telecom sector with its pursuit of Kuwaiti telecom company, Zain.In other updates, a international telecom company, Quippo Telecom Infrastructure and Wireless TT Info Services has acquired the tower business of telecom company, Tata Teleservices (Maharashtra) Ltd. Simply North America accounts for nearly 60 per cent of India’s information technology export basket and top-tier information technology companies such as Infosys, Wipro and HCL Technologies appear to be aggressively ramping up their delivery capabilities in the region. While the information technology company Infosys Technologies has bought McCamish Systems based in Georgia, HCL Technologies has completed the acquisition and of a data centre in New Jersey.Meanwhile the information technology (IT) and and ITeS Industry Association of AP has estimated a 20 per cent increase in exports from Andhra Pradesh in the next financial year. In other developments, California-based information technology company NComputing is looking at Tier II and III cities of Uttar Pradesh for growth. Information technology exports from the state of Gujarat are expected to grow by 15-20 per cent in the financial year end 2009-10, according to Ravi Saxena, principal secretary, Department, of Science and Technology (DST), Government of Gujarat (GoG).

The doctors are all now know everything about a medical setting. They expected to be updated on the latest technologies and medical practices alike. This assumption is based on an increasingly urgent need to be vigilant to keep the rat-race. However, contrary to this belief, even if doctors need a regular income when an emerging technology and medical solutions. Thus, a series of conferences and events organized.

Events and medical conferences, Open Stage exchange of valuable information on the latest shades and medical technology, among the fraternity. It brings together the whole batch of medical experts and refreshes the current innovations and improvements. Teachers with experience and fame for the more the grace of these performances.

These conferences have the primary purpose of updating the medical community with the recent developments in the medical field and bring them together for an enriching experience again, to promote socially friendly relations between ensuring maximum participation of all four of the medical community and to attract public opinion and attention as well.

In the promotion and advertising today – corporate culture directed aggressive advertising and promotion have become explicit importance. Therefore, to promote large events such as health, many internet portal has increased in large cities. Many web portals to meet the needs of the conferences as well. However, the requirement is a web site that sets this conference apart from each other and promotes a more effective way of ensuring maximum participation of all sectors of the medical community and attracts attention and decision, and general knowledge.

Medical events is a unique portal that addresses the need to update the mass involved with the latest medical events, conferences, exhibitions, latest innovations, research and updates in the various fields of medicine and the prominence of the medical industry. They act as a catalyst to bring together a varied genre of medical practitioners under one roof to interact, promote and do business in this industry that will lead to better health care for the common man. Some upcoming events are listed on the portal:

• Pharmac India 2011, September 17-19, 2011, at Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

• India Lab Expo 2011, Dec. 8-10, 2011, at New Delhi, India

• Healthex 2011, August 5-7, 2011, at Bangalore, India

Knowledge grows when shared, is a common learning that most of us soaked and learned during our childhood. And the meaning of what strikes us as he discusses the upcoming medical events where doctors and medical professionals have learned to talk about the latest news and developments in the world of medicine to keep up with everyone later in the medical front. And these sites are impressive achievements in promoting these events are at your best potential.

Auto Apply The auto apply step is used to stage

compatible device on targeted systems using that have been imported to the driver catalog. When this step runs, it downloads for every device that is present on the system by matching their plug n

play hardware IDs to those found in the driver catalog. As long as a matching driver has been added to a driver package that exists on a distribution point, the driver can be downloaded successfully. On operating systems prior to Windows

Vista/Server 2008, the are downloaded to the system drive to a folder called “.” The devicepath value in the registry is updated to point to each driver in the folder so that Windows will know where to find the correct during the installation phase. For Windows Vista systems and higher, the are placed into the driver store. Note that are not installed until the mini-setup phase of Sysprep, which occurs during the Setup Windows and

ConfigMgr step.

The auto apply step is nice because driver matching happens automatically without having to worry about specific driver packages that apply to specific systems. This works well as long as you have tested each system and verified that the driver installation occurred successfully. Unfortunately, there are situations where this step does not work correctly, causing major issues while deploying operating systems. The issues that can cause an auto apply driver step to fail are listed next.

media–If the Configuration Manager 2007 infrastructure is not available, the auto apply will fail. If you areusing this step with media, the step will fail due to the lack of network connectivity to the site. We will discuss media later in this chapter.

Driver matching uncertainty–Althou gh the auto apply driver step is responsible for determining which should be staged locally, it does not actually apply the . Windows does this during the Sysprep mini-setup phase by matching the best for the device. If multiple network card from the same manufacturer have been imported to the driver catalog, for example, multiple versions may be downloaded to a computer with similar hardware. Unfortunately,

Windows may not be able to determine the “correct” driver and may install a driver that has not been certified for the device. Although the driver may work, it might not perform as expected due to the wrong driver being installed.

Driver additions–Once

you have tested and verified that your systems install the correct using the auto apply step, you may need to add additional for new systems. Once a new driver has been imported to the driver catalog, you will have to verify and test each driver for each system all over again since you don’t necessarily know which driver will be used. This can get very tedious especially if multiple are added to the driver catalog frequently.

The Crime Scene:
The crime scene refers to the location at which a crime has occurred. It must be managed properly in order to maximize the potential for evidence which would help to solve the crime. This management includes cordoning off the area and ensuring that the appropriate specialists, such as forensic scientists or pathologists, are called. In addition, a log book must be kept at the crime scene which indicates the persons who have entered and left the scene. This helps to differentiate between traces left behind by investigators or other persons entering the scene and evidence left behind as a result of the crime itself. All evidence collected must be properly labelled, documented and recorded and photos or sketches of the crime scene should be made. Documentation of evidence is essential as it is useless to analyze a piece of evidence and then not be able to identify its origin. The photos or sketches are useful as they can be used for reference after the crime scene has been cleared. The chain of custody begins at the crime scene at the point of collection. Physical evidence is any object which establishes that a crime has been committed or which links the crime to a victim or perpetrator. There are several types of crime scenes and correspondingly several types of physical evidence. The types of crimes include sexual assault, murder, drug raids, arson, fraud and robbery. The types of evidence collected in relation to these crimes include hair, semen, blood, fibres, fingerprints, narcotics, empty gasoline bottles, documents and tools.

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Bloodstain Pattern Analysis:
Bloodstain pattern analysis refers to the examination of shapes, locations and patterns of bloodstains in an attempt to provide an explanation of the physical events which caused the stains. This analysis is based on the premise that the patterns are characteristic of the forces that created them. There are several classifications of bloodstain patterns. The first type is passive, and this refers to for example a drop of blood. These types of bloodstains occurred without any external force, except gravity, acting on them. The second type is transfer bloodstain patterns. These occur when a wet, bloody surface comes in contact with a secondary surface, and may leave a resulting imprint of the object. This group can be further subdivided into contact bleeding, swipe/smear, wipe and smudge, each of which usually occur due to different forms of contact and can be used to corroborate or contradict statements given by the accused and the alleged victim. The third type is cast-off stains which result from a released or thrown blood-bearing object in motion. The fourth type is arterial spurt or gush, which results from blood exiting the body under pressure from an artery. The final type is a projected pattern, which occurs when the blood source is impacted by some external force greater than gravity. This force may be either internal or external and the pattern seen depends on the amount of force which was exerted. Medium velocity forces of 5 to 25 feet/sec usually result in preponderant stain sizes of 1 – 4 mm, whereas high velocity forces such as approximately 100 feet/sec would result in preponderant stain size usually of less than or equal to 1 mm. High velocity forces occur for example in the case of gunshots. Altered patterns may also be seen which are physically or physiologically changed. These changes may arise from blood clots, diluted stains (such as if someone was trying to clean up the blood), insect activity or as a result of obstruction by an object.

Four P’s of Evidence Handling:
These factors are important in order to maintain the integrity and value of the evidence collected. These factors are:
Protection = avoid contamination of the evidence
Procurement = ensure that the collected evidence coincides with the documentation
Package = packaging methods should be chosen so as to ensure that testing is not impeded or prevented
Preserve = ensure that the evidence is properly stored

Blood:
Preliminary examination for blood first involves screening using the Kastle Myer test. This is based on the property of haemoglobin which enables it to accelerate the oxidation of phenolphthalein, in a peroxidise-like manner, such that there is a colour change from colourless to pink. In cases where the Kastle Myer test gives a negative result, but the presence of blood is thought to be likely the luminol test is employed. This test is not the first choice test since it degrades the DNA present, but it is very sensitive and can detect tiny traces of blood up to 300,000 times diluted. The luminol reacts with haemoglobin to produce molecules which emit light.
After a positive preliminary test confirmation testing must be done. This involves determining the species of origin of the blood in question, which can be done using the precipitin test. The precipitin test involves an immuno-electrophoresis reaction using an antigen-antibody reaction. The antibody may be an anti-human serum or may be for other animals which could possibly have been present. In a positive reaction a precipitate is produced.

Weapons:
Weapons found at a crime scene must be handled in the same manner as all forms of evidence collected. Some weapons may have biological evidence such as bloodstains which can be analyzed while others are sent straight to the Ballistics Department. Common weapons include guns, knives, cutlasses, hammers and blunt objects such as metal pipes.

Semen:
Evidence which is thought to have semen present must first go through preliminary examination. The first test which is done is usually the acid phosphatase test. Acid phosphatase is an enzyme which is found in high concentration in semen but is also found in low concentration in vaginal secretions. The test is based on sodium alpha-napthyl phosphate and fast blue dye, which turns purple in the presence of acid phosphatase.

Swab and Smear:
Swabs and smears are used to facilitate microscopic examination, often especially in cases of sexual assault. In most cases the doctor who examines the victim takes swabs of specific areas including vaginal, anal, penile and oral/buccal, depending on the case. For some cases the oral swab can be used for comparison. Swabs are usually examined for the presence of spermatozoa. On the other hand smears can be examined for the presence of spermatozoa, red blood cells, white blood cells, Trichomonas vaginalis and N. gonococci.

Other Body Fluids:
Other body fluids can be tested as evidence and these include sweat, urine (based upon the presence of creatine), saliva or faecal tests. The urine test is based on identifying the presence of creatine through the use of pictric acid and sodium hydroxide which forms a brown-orange colour when positive.

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Hair and Fibres:
Hair samples can be examined and used to give an indication of the race, type of animal and whether natural or synthetic. In cases where the root is present on the hair then DNA analysis can also be carried out.
Fibre samples are analyzed to see if they are natural or synthetic (and the class of synthetic fibre), used for colour comparison and used for texture comparison with statements given.

DNA:
DNA contains all the genetic information of the cell and is made up of genes and alleles, which are variations of genes. The DNA is tightly coiled into chromosomes which vary in number from one organism to another. DNA can be used for several applications including forensic investigations, paternity testing, identification of missing persons or catastrophe victims and lineage studies. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. DNA also contains short tandem repeats (STR) which vary in length and number from one person to another. These STR markers are therefore useful in DNA analysis and currently eight STR markers, each with a variety of sizes or alleles, are being used for analysis. For example, TPOX is an STR found on chromosome 5 and its repeat unit is AATG and this unit can be repeated between 6-13 times. The STR may be repeated six times o one homologous chromosome and eight times on the (one from each parent) but it is still the same gene on both chromosomes, only the STR size is different. In this example the genotype for TPOX would be “8,6″. When the DNA is separated by gel electrophoresis the larger sizes move slower on the gel. Sources of biological evidence include blood, semen, urine, hair, fingernails, tissue, saliva, teeth and organs. The processes involved in DNA analysis are extraction, quantification, PCR and STR typing. DNA extraction can be done using several methods.

DNA Extraction:
Firstly, the Chelex (inorganic) method can be used. It involves the use of PBS (phosphate buffer solution) to free the cells from the sample. The sample is then boiled in a solution containing chelating resin beads that bind metal ions such as magnesium which causes the cells to lyse and release the DNA. This is not a very efficient method as it doesn’t produce much DNA. The second method is the organic method which uses phenol chloroform iso-amyl (PCI). PCI precipitates proteins, fats and extraneous materials thus leaving only the DNA in solution. Alcohol is then used to clean and precipitate the DNA, thereby increasing its purity. Thirdly, the DNA IQ (Promega) method can be used. A lysis buffer containing a salt (guanidine thiocyanate – GTC) is used which causes the DNA to stick to the paramagnetic resin. Following this a wash is done with low salt or alcohol based wash buffer and the DNA is isolated. Finally, the Maxwell 16 method can be used which uses pre-dispensed reagent cartridges and has moderate throughput. The inorganic and organic methods are older and the DNA IQ and Maxwell 16 methods have now been developed for several reasons. The older methods involved procedures such as soaking samples, which results in inefficient DNA recovery and may cause significant loss of DNA. The older methods also can introduce amplification inhibitors and in addition the chemical PCI is hazardous. The newer methods allow for DNA extraction without these problems.

DNA Quantification:
DNA quantification is used to determine the amount of amplifiable DNA. 0.1 to 0.3 ng of DNA is required to get accurate results in the analysis. A kit called the Plexor HY from Promega is used with Corbett Rotor Gene 6000 Real-Time PCR. During the PCR, as DNA is amplified the fluorescence decreases. The reporter used is iso-dC and the free nucleotide dabcyl-iso-dGTP binds to the reporter at the end of amplification. This is known as fluorescence quenching.

PCR:
PCR is used to copy target STRs through thermal cycling. The components used for PCR are nuclease-free water, STR buffer containing dNTPs and Mg2+, primers and Taq DNA polymerase. The primers and Taq DNA polymerase enable stringent copying of only STR sequences. The primers are tagged and have an affinity for the markers. They are tagged by two fluorophores, namely tetramethylrhodamine (TMR) which is red and fluoroscein (FL) which is green. Four of the eight STRs are complementary to the primers with TMR, while the other four are complementary to the primers with FL. These tags aid in band visualization after electrophoresis.

STR Typing:
STR typing is mainly done using two methods. Firstly, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis method can be used. In this method the sample must be denatured and mixed with a loading dye (often bromophenol blue) which keeps the sample in the well by making it heavier. The samples can then be loaded and the electrophoresis is carried out followed by scanning and examination of the gel. In this method another fluorophore called carboxy -X- rhodamine (CXR) is used to tag the internal lane standard and is added to each well. The FMBIO machine is then used which recognizes the different wavelengths of the fluorophore tags and converts this data into digital data and visualizes the colours. It is important to use these fluorophores since some of the STRs will be the same size and therefore will move the same distance on the gel. Without the colour difference it would not be possible to identify them as separate STRs. The four which are tagged green are of varying sizes and so they will not overlap with each other. The same is true for the four which are tagged red. After the visualization is done the genotype must be derived from the images. This is done by identifying the two alleles of each of the eight STRs and the resulting data would be as follows, for example for CSF – 8,6.
The second method used is the ABI Genetic Analyzer 3100. In this method the amplified DNA fragments are loaded into the machine which has 16 silica capillaries which enable the separation of the fragments by electrophoresis.

Y-STRs
The Y chromosome is found only in males and is therefore passed on from father to son. Due to this fact the Y chromosome can offer particular information which is useful to several applications including genetic genealogy studies. Analysis of Y-STRs is especially useful in sexual assault cases which do not have clear results. Since only the Y-STRs will be tested for, the female victim’s profile will not interfere with the analysis. Y-STRs are smaller than the other STRs and will remain in tact even in highly degraded samples and 9 core Y-STRs are used in a reference database. The advantages of using these are that it makes it easier to exclude suspects and easier mixture analysis. However, the disadvantage to using this method is that it is not easy to include someone since the Y chromosome is the same in each generation.